Type
Topic
Region
Year
Displaying 1 - 25 of 25
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Climate, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Safety, Weather
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: blowups, convection, fire control, fire management, fire whirls, firefighting personnel, smoke behavior, storms, Washington, wildfires, wind
[no description entered]
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire History, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Logistics, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: aesthetics, biomass, catastrophic fires, combustion, European settlement, fire case histories, fire control, fire equipment, fire management, fire regimes, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, land use, landscape ecology, national forests, national parks, private lands, wilderness fire management, wildfires
During the 1970s and 1980s, the Francis Marion National Forest (FMNF) supported the second largest and only documented naturally increasing population of red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis). Prior to Hurricane Hugo hitting the FMNF in September 1989, the red-cockaded…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Aviation, Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Logistics, Prescribed Fire, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Social Science, Economics, Hazard and Risk, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: aerial ignition, age classes, artificial cavities, birds, burning intervals, cavity nesting birds, cavity trees, coastal plain, competition, distribution, disturbance, droughts, fire hazard reduction, fire suppression, forage, forest management, fuel accumulation, fuel loading, ground cover, habitat conversion, habitat suitability, habits and behavior, hardwoods, herbaceous vegetation, ignition, mortality, national forests, nesting, nongame birds, Picoides borealis, pine forests, Pinus palustris, Pinus taeda, pocosins, population ecology, reproduction, salvage, season of fire, site treatments, smoke effects, smoke management, South Carolina, statistical analysis, storms, thinning, threatened and endangered species (animals), trees, US Forest Service, wildlife food plants, wildlife habitat management, wind, artificial cavities, decline, Francis Marion National Forest, Hurricane Hugo, long term recovery, Picoides borealis, recovery, red-cockaded woodpecker
[no description entered]
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Aquatic, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Models, Outreach, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Social Science, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Great Basin, Northwest
Keywords: aesthetics, air quality, burning permits, catastrophic fires, crown fires, education, fire damage (property), fire damage protection, fire hazard reduction, fire intensity, fire regimes, fire suppression, forest management, fuel accumulation, fuel loading, fuel management, health factors, landscape ecology, liability, logging, population density, post fire recovery, prescribed fires (escaped), public information, recreation, riparian habitats, sedimentation, slash, smoke effects, smoke management, soil erosion, species diversity (animals), species diversity (plants), stand characteristics, statistical analysis, streamflow, thinning, US Forest Service, wilderness fire management, wildfires
[no description entered]
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Aquatic, Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire History, Fire Prevention, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Planning, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Social Science, Economics
Region(s): Rocky Mountain
Keywords: catastrophic fires, Colorado, coniferous forests, ecosystem dynamics, fire case histories, fire damage (property), fire injuries (humans), fire management, fire size, fire suppression, floods, forest management, forest products, health factors, liability, logging, multiple resource management, national forests, Pinus ponderosa, post fire recovery, recreation related fires, season of fire, sedimentation, site treatments, smoke behavior, smoke effects, smoke management, soil erosion, soils, statistical analysis, storms, US Forest Service, water quality, water repellent soils, watersheds, wildfires
[no description entered]
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Prevention, Hazard and Risk, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Social Science, Economics, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Great Basin, Northwest
Keywords: aesthetics, air quality, broadcast burning, coniferous forests, fire control, fire exclusion, fire hazard reduction, fire management, forage, forest management, forest products, grazing, livestock, logging, Native Americans, Pinus ponderosa, population density, prescribed fires (escaped), private lands, recreation, regeneration, site treatments, smoke management, thinning, Washington, wildfires
In December 1997, Environmental Ministers in the Southeast Asia region, through the Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF), approved the Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP). This action was in response to the recent fire crisis and to prevent future health, economic, and environmental…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Climate, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Hazard and Risk, Models, Planning, Regulations and Legislation, Safety
Region(s): International
Keywords: agriculture, Asia, ENSO, fire danger rating, fire management, health factors, Indonesia, slash and burn, smoke behavior, smoke effects, smoke management, Southeast Asia, wildfires
The intentional use of fire adjacent to urban areas is much more difficult than burning in more rural areas. Numerous modifications in planning and execution are required. This paper describes some of the adjustments Florida fire managers have learned to make, most of which will…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Prevention, Intelligence, Outreach, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Safety, Social Science, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: convection, education, fire control, fire damage (property), fire damage protection, fire protection, Florida, foam, ignition, liability, public information, rural communities, smoke behavior, smoke management, suppression
Kootenay National Park, British Columbia, has a landscape fire management target to maintain or restore 50% of the long-term average fire cycle. Because the park experiences frequent lightning fires it has adopted a strategy to use both management-ignited prescribed burns and…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fire Occurrence, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Models, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Weather
Region(s): Rocky Mountain, International
Keywords: Abies lasiocarpa, British Columbia, Canada, droughts, fire case histories, fire control, fire danger rating, fire frequency, fire management, fire size, fire suppression, firebreaks, fuel loading, fuel moisture, landscape ecology, lightning, lightning caused fires, mountains, national parks, Picea engelmannii, Pinus albicaulis, Pinus contorta, prescribed fires (chance ignition), rate of spread, roads, season of fire, sloping terrain, smoke management, subalpine forests, wilderness fire management, British Columbia, fire management, fire restoration, Kootenay National Park, lightning fire, national parks
From the text ... 'It is not so much that our suppression policy was flawed as it is that our fire use policy is too constricted. ...Fire protection in the WUI is not just about protecting houses--it's about protecting quality of life. ...We might argue that the extended-attack…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Planning, Regulations and Legislation, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: air quality, Australia, catastrophic fires, coniferous forests, crown fires, droughts, ecosystem dynamics, education, fire damage (property), fire dependent species, fire equipment, fire exclusion, fire frequency, fire hazard reduction, fire intensity, fire management, fire protection, fire regimes, fire size, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, forest management, fuel accumulation, fuel management, National Fire Plan, natural resource legislation, old growth forests, overstory, pine forests, Pinus palustris, Pinus ponderosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii, public information, rate of spread, smoke management, spot fires, stand characteristics, suppression, thinning, threatened and endangered species (animals), US Forest Service, understory vegetation, vulnerable species or communities, Washington, wilderness fire management, wildfires
Federal land management agencies use prescribed fire as an efficient tool in managing longleaf pine ecosystems. Prescribed fires are used to control unwanted woody growth, promote natural plant diversity, remove exotic species, create seedbeds for pine regeneration and enhance…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Safety, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: air quality, burning permits, ecosystem dynamics, fire adaptations (plants), fire management, firefighting personnel, fragmentation, introduced species, invasive species, land management, Longleaf Alliance, longleaf pine, native species (animals), native species (plants), natural areas management, natural resource legislation, pine forests, Pinus palustris, regeneration, smoke management, species diversity (plants), threatened and endangered species, wildlife refuges, wood, woody plants
Prescribed fire is a key management ingredient in maintaining the balance of components in the longleaf pine grassland system. Burning by prescription and unitizing multiple landowner objectives allows resource managers to successfully accomplish burns. At Ichauway, the Joseph W…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: air quality, burning intervals, cover, education, fire dependent species, fire frequency, fire management, Georgia, grasslands, ground cover, habitat conversion, hardwoods, Jones Ecological Research Center, land use, Longleaf Alliance, longleaf pine, multiple resource management, pine forests, Pinus palustris, private lands, regeneration, season of fire, smoke management, threatened and endangered species (animals), threatened and endangered species (plants), understory vegetation, wildlife, wildlife food plants, wildlife habitat management
From the text ... 'Wildfires have had a high impact on Botswana's environment, destroying both forest and rangeland resources. ...Prescribed burning is practiced in State forest reserves, national parks, and game reserves to reduce highly flammable fine fuels on the forest floor…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Aquatic, Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire Occurrence, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Logistics, Outreach, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Safety, Social Science
Region(s): International
Keywords: Africa, agriculture, arid regions, Baikiaea, Botswana, conservation, crown fires, deserts, ecosystem dynamics, education, environmental impact analysis, fine fuels, fire control, fire damage (property), fire danger rating, fire equipment, fire frequency, fire injuries (animals), fire intensity, fire management, fire size, firebreaks, firefighting personnel, flammability, fuel loading, grasses, ground fires, heat, human caused fires, humidity, hunting, landscape ecology, leaves, litter, logging, mortality, national parks, precipitation, public information, riparian habitats, runoff, savannas, season of fire, smoke effects, soil erosion, soil nutrients, state forests, surface fires, temperature, topography, Washington, water, wildfires, wind
From the text ... 'The goal of a WFSA is to provide a format for developing sound alternatives and making rational decisions during wildland firefighting. While documentation is important, it is imperative to use a process and tools that foster informed, strategic fire…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Mapping, Planning, Safety
Region(s): Northern Rockies, Northwest
Keywords: blowups, catastrophic fires, computer programs, education, environmental impact analysis, fire case histories, fire control, fire damage (property), fire danger rating, fire growth, fire management, fire size, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, land management, Montana, mortality, Oregon, rate of spread, smoke behavior, statistical analysis, suppression, US Forest Service, Washington, wilderness fire management, wildfires
From the text ... ''It will be a long time before those woods, more relentless than the waters, give up their dead.' -- C.E.Robinson, 1872 ...The drought was mild compared to the times leading up to other historically great fires in the Midwest. ...Surface fires scorched tree…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire History, Fire Occurrence, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Logistics, Mapping, Outreach, Prescribed Fire, Safety, Social Science, Weather, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, International, National
Keywords: Acer, air quality, air temperature, Arizona, bark, Betula, blowups, bogs, Canada, catastrophic fires, Colorado, combustion, coniferous forests, convection, crown fires, crown scorch, crowns, Cupressaceae, dead fuels, deciduous forests, droughts, duff, education, energy, evergreens, Fagus grandifolia, fire case histories, fire damage (property), fire danger rating, fire exclusion, fire frequency, fire growth, fire injuries (humans), fire intensity, fire management, fire sensitive plants, fire whirls, firebrands, firebreaks, firefighting personnel, flammability, forage, forest fragmentation, forest products, Fraxinus, fuel appraisal, fuel management, gases, heat, human caused fires, humidity, ignition, Illinois, leaves, lightning caused fires, logging, Maine, Michigan, mineral soils, Minnesota, mortality, mosaic, Nebraska, New Brunswick, New England, old growth forests, Ontario, overstory, Picea, Picea glauca, Picea mariana, Pinus banksiana, Pinus resinosa, Pinus strobus, precipitation, presettlement fires, public information, Quercus, radiation, rate of spread, rivers, season of fire, smoke behavior, smoke effects, snags, soils, spontaneous combustion, spot fires, stand characteristics, storms, surface fires, surface fuels, temperature, topography, Ulmus, understory vegetation, vortices, Washington, water, wilderness areas, wilderness fire management, wildfires, wind, Wisconsin, wood, woody fuels
From the text (pp. 2-3)...'General Guidelines: Rule 1. For those in the process of learning to burn or with limited experience, use the 60:40 Rule. The 60:40 rule states that you burn with an air temperature of less than 60°F, a relative humidity greater than 40%, and a wind…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Fire Ecology, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fuels, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Weather
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: air temperature, burning intervals, fire adaptations (plants), fire frequency, firebreaks, forbs, fuel moisture, grasses, herbaceous vegetation, humidity, ignition, invasive species, Juniperus virginiana, native species (plants), Oklahoma, perennial plants, pine hardwood forests, plant communities, prairies, rate of spread, riparian habitats, season of fire, shrublands, smoke management, spot fires, temperature, weed control, wildfires, wildlife habitat management, wind, woody fuels
Fire has played a major role in determining the distribution of plants across the Coastal Plain of the southeastern U.S. The extent of fire dependent ecosystems such as pond pine/high pocosin forest type has been reduced and wildland fire fuel loads have increased as a result of…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Fire Ecology, Climate, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fuels, Models, Monitoring and Inventory, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Safety
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: air quality, biomass, blowups, catastrophic fires, coastal plain, cover type conversion, dead fuels, distribution, FIA, fire control, fire dependent species, fire exclusion, fire intensity, flame length, fuel appraisal, fuel loading, fuel models, ground fires, health factors, land management, liability, live fuels, low intensity burns, Oregon, organic soils, pine forests, Pinus serotina, pocosins, population density, population ecology, rate of spread, smoke behavior, soil moisture, soil organic matter, soils, surface fuels, understory vegetation, wildfires, wildland fuels, ladder fuels
Better understanding is needed of what makes educational efforts most effective in increasing public support for wildfire management and mitigation efforts. Results of a mail survey of homeowners in Incline Village, Nevada, indicate that personalized contact is key in the…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Logistics, Outreach, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Safety, Social Science, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Great Basin
Keywords: defensible space, public acceptance, education, Nevada, public attitudes, wildfire, homeowner perceptions, information sources, property damage, fire damage, fire damage protection, fire danger rating, fire hazard reduction, fire injuries (plants), fire damage (property), fire intensity, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, light burning, escaped prescribed fires, smoke effects, surface fires, aesthetics, health factors, logging, partial cutting, population density, private lands, public information, thinning, Abies concolor, fire management planning, fuel management, land use, wildlife habitat management, coniferous forests
The problem of eye safety in lidar-assisted wildland fire detection and investigation is considered as a problem of reduction of the hazard range within which the laser beam is dangerous for direct eye exposure. The dependence of this hazard range on the lidar characteristics is…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Prevention, Intelligence, Mapping, Monitoring and Inventory, Safety
Region(s): International
Keywords: remote sensing, Portugal, Gestosa, Europe, field experimental fires, fire hazard reduction, fire suppression, smoke behavior, smoke management, statistical analysis, wilderness fire management, wildfires
Extensive measurements of smoke exposure among wildland firefighters are summarized, showing that firefighters can be exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants, including formaldehyde, acrolein, and respirable particulate matter. Benzene was also…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Effects, Fire Prevention, Hazard and Risk, Logistics, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Safety
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: hazard, wildfires, CO - carbon monoxide, FERA - Fire and Environmental Research Applications Team, firefighter safety, firefighters, air quality, CO2 - carbon dioxide, chemical compounds, fire danger rating, fire equipment, fire injury, fire management, fire management planning, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, health factors, mop up, particulates, pollution, season of fire, smoke effects, smoke management, statistical analysis, toxicity, wind
Fire shelters are critical safety items required for use by most wildland firefighters in the United States. Most testing of fire shelters, clothing and other personal protective equipment (PPE) has been limited to prescribed fires or laboratory based studies. This study reports…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Prevention, Hazard and Risk, Logistics, Models, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Safety, Social Science
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, International, National
Keywords: Canada, crown fires, jack pine, Pinus banksiana, black spruce, fire shelter, ICFME - International Crown Fire Modeling Experiment, Picea mariana, Northwest Territories, air temperature, field experimental fires, fire damage (property), fire equipment, fire injuries (humans), fire intensity, fire management, fire management planning, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, humidity, gases, ignition, mortality, photography, wind
We report the results of a questionnaire and workshop that sought to gain a better and deeper understanding of the contemporary information needs of wildland fire and fuels managers. Results from the questionnaire indicated that the decision to suppress a wildland fire was most…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire History, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Logistics, Mapping, Models, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Safety, Weather
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: strategic planning, WFU - wildland fire use, decision support, management plan, catastrophic fires, computer program, crown fires, ecosystem dynamics, fire danger rating, fire hazard reduction, fire management, fire management planning, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, fuel accumulation, fuel management, GIS - geographic information system, grazing, heavy fuels, herbicide, invasive species, land management, recreation, US Forest Service, wildfires, wildland fuels, wildlife habitat management
Fire has been a significant ecosystem process in the Southeast for thousands of years. It kept slash pine in the wetter parts of the flatwoods pine forests historically. Today, when slash pine covers a much larger landscape, fire still plays an integral role in its management.…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire Occurrence, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Mapping, Models, Monitoring and Inventory, Outreach, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Social Science, Weather, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: aesthetics, air quality, browse, burning permits, cavity nesting birds, Colinus virginianus, cover, crown scorch, ecosystem dynamics, education, fire dependent species, fire frequency, fire hazard reduction, fire injuries (plants), fire management, flatwoods, forage, forest management, fuel accumulation, fuel loading, GIS, Gopherus polyphemus, hydrology, insects, invasive species, liability, longleaf pine, mammals, mortality, N - nitrogen, nutrients, old growth forests, pH, Picoides borealis, pine forests, Pinus elliottii, Pinus elliottii densa, Pinus palustris, plant diseases, plant growth, plantations, post fire recovery, public information, regeneration, remote sensing, reptiles, shrubs, slash, slash pine, smoke management, soil nutrients, statistical analysis, threatened and endangered species (animals), Ursus americanus floridanus, vegetation surveys, water quality, wildfires, wildlife, wildlife food habits, wildlife habitat management
A screening-level assessment of the health risks of chronic smoke exposure for wildland firefighters
A screening health risk assessment was performed to assess the upper-bound risks of cancer and noncancer adverse health effects among wildland firefighters performing wildfire suppression and prescribed burn management. Of the hundreds of chemicals in wildland fire smoke, we…
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Safety
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: FERA - Fire and Environmental Research Applications Team, firefighter safety, smoke exposure, fire suppression, firefighting personnel, CO - carbon monoxide, diseases, toxicity, smoke management
[no description entered]
Person:
Year: 2004
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Fire Ecology, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Prevention, Safety
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: chemical compounds, chemistry, combustion, fire injuries (humans), fire management, firefighting personnel, flammability, gases, health factors, heat effects, O - oxygen, toxicity