Type
Topic
Region
Year
Displaying 1 - 25 of 34
The revision of FOFEM, a national fire effects model, is described. FOFEM 5.0 will incorporate the predictions of fuel consumption, tree mortality and smoke production along with the addition of soil heating and an updated user interface. The revised version of FOFEM will model…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fuels, Mapping, Models, Planning
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: air quality, Canada, computer programs, cover, cover type, crown fires, fire injuries (plants), fire management, forest management, fuel appraisal, fuel management, heat, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, mortality, overstory, soils, surface fires, understory vegetation, BURNUP
BLM/NIFC/RSFWSU will provide a sesion revealing some of the current and past remote sensing involvements within the wildfire area. State of the art electronic sensing methods and devices will be displayed. Several data telemetry options available will also be covered in the…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Climate, Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Intelligence, Mapping, Monitoring and Inventory, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Weather
Region(s): International
Keywords: aerosols, air quality, Brazil, energy, fire control, fire management, fire suppression, humidity, Idaho, ignition, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, radiation, remote sensing, smoke behavior, smoke management, soils, South America, suppression, telemetry, weather observations, wildfires, wind, weather station, Spanish language
The purpose of the fire phase of the Smoke Clouds and Radiation (SCAR) experiments is to develop a technique for the quantitative remote sensing of fires and fire emissions. The first of the three fire experiments occurred in 1994 in California and the Pacific Noithwest. This…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire History, Intelligence, Logistics, Mapping, Monitoring and Inventory, Planning, Prescribed Fire
Region(s): California, Great Basin, Northwest, International
Keywords: aerosols, air quality, biomass, Brazil, energy, fire case histories, fire equipment, fire management, gases, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, radiation, remote sensing, smoke behavior, South America, wildfires, MAS (MODIS Airborne Simulator), MOPITT-A, SCAR - smoke clouds and radiation
A comprehensive investigation of Canadian boreal forest fires was conducted using NOAA-AVHRR imagery. Algorithms were developed to (1) detect active forest fires, (2) map burned areas on daily and annual basis, and (3) estimate fire emissions based on burned area and Canadian…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fuels, Mapping, Models, Planning, Weather
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, International, National
Keywords: air quality, Alberta, boreal forests, Canada, carbon dioxide, cover, croplands, crown fires, digital data collection, droughts, fire case histories, fire intensity, fire management, fire size, fuel loading, fuel models, fuel moisture, fuel types, grasslands, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, Northwest Territories, Ontario, radiation, remote sensing, sampling, smoke behavior, smoke effects, smoke management, statistical analysis, surface fires, wetlands, boreal forest, burned area, DIGITAL FUEL TYPE, FIRE PIXEL, FIRE DETENTION ALGORITHM, FLOWCHARTS, fuel consumption
Current space-borne sensor systems can be used to generate products of fire susceptibility using time-series of vegetation state, the occurrence and rough location of active fires using middle and thermal infrared sensors and smoke and area burned using visible, near and middle…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Planning
Region(s): International
Keywords: digital data collection, Europe, fire management, forest management, fuel accumulation, fuel arrangement, Germany, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, national parks, photography, radiation, remote sensing, temperature, hot events on earth, forest fires, fire recognition from space, detection algorithms, BIRD - Bi-spectral Infra-Red Detection, fire detection, INTELLIGENT INFRARED SEASOR PROTOTYPE FOCUS, mid infrared, MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer), SWIR - Short Wave Infra-Red
Smoke may present the most intractable barrier of all to implementing more enlightened fire management. The benefits of a prescribed fire program can only be realized if the public and regulatory agencies agree that the air quality impacts are acceptable. Currently, land…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fuels, Mapping, Models, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Weather
Region(s): Alaska, Great Basin, Northwest, Southern
Keywords: air quality, chemical compounds, chemistry, combustion, computer programs, duff, fire management, fuel moisture, fuel types, gases, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, moisture, North Carolina, organic soils, ozone, particulates, remote sensing, smoke behavior, smoke effects, smoke management, soils, wind
Understanding the trade-off between short-term and long-term consequences of fire impacts on ecosystems is needed before a comprehensive fuels management program can be implemented nationally. We are comparing three vegetation models that may be used to predict the effects of…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Models, Monitoring and Inventory, Planning, Prescribed Fire
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, International, National
Keywords: air quality, Alabama, biogeochemical cycles, catastrophic fires, computer programs, digital data collection, disturbance, ecosystem dynamics, fire frequency, fire hazard reduction, fire management, fire regimes, Florida, fuel accumulation, fuel appraisal, fuel inventory, fuel loading, fuel management, fuel models, fuel types, GIS, grasses, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, land management, land use planning, logging, Michigan, Montana, mortality, national parks, New Mexico, overstory, prescribed fires (escaped), rate of spread, recreation, remote sensing, shrubs, smoke management, surface fires, surface fuels, thinning, topography, understory vegetation, Utah, wildfires, wildland fuels, Yosemite National Park, risk assessment
The workshop began with the workshop facilitator, Neil Sampson, summarizing 17 invited papers presented on the opening day of the conference. These papers provided a state-of-the-science overview of pre-selected topics including Overview (3 papers), GIS and Remote Sensing…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Models, Planning, Prescribed Fire
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, International, National
Keywords: air quality, computer programs, erosion, Europe, fire hazard reduction, fire intensity, fire management, fire regimes, fire size, fuel appraisal, fuel models, GIS, grasslands, health factors, Idaho, ignition, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, land management, landscape ecology, overstory, remote sensing, shrublands, site treatments, smoke effects, soils, South America, US Forest Service, understory vegetation, United Kingdom, decision tools, dissemination of information, GLOBAL STUDIES
A method of composing vegetation fuel maps (VF maps) at medium scale is explained along with the purpose of such maps. A vegetation fuel VF map for the Lake Baikal basin has been created as an example of using this method.
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Aquatic, Climate, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Weather
Region(s): International
Keywords: Abies spp., air temperature, Betula, bogs, combustion, dead fuels, diameter classes, distribution, droughts, duff, ecosystem dynamics, Europe, fine fuels, fire danger rating, fire hazard reduction, fire management, forest management, forest types, fuel accumulation, fuel loading, fuel management, fuel moisture, fuel types, grasses, ground fires, heat, humus, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, lakes, Larix occidentalis, leaves, lichens, litter, mosses, mountains, needles, overstory, Picea, Pinus, population density, Populus, rhododendron, rocky habitats, Russia, season of fire, seedlings, shrubs, Siberia, slash, snags, soils, stand characteristics, topography, tundra, understory vegetation, vegetation surveys, wildfires, wildland fuels, wind, prime conductors of burning, vegetation fuel map, current forest fire danger map, dew point, drought index, drought severity class, HETEROGENEITY OF FUEL CONDITIONS, saplings, steppe, VEGETATION PYROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Fuels maps are a fundamental part of fire management activities such as prescribed fire planning, suppression strategies, smoke management, and fire effects. The constraints imposed by fiscal and human resources make it desirable to have a method that can rapidly and objectively…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Communications, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Effects, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Intelligence, Mapping, Models, Monitoring and Inventory, Prescribed Fire
Region(s): Rocky Mountain
Keywords: Abies lasiocarpa, cover, cover type, croplands, crowns, deciduous forests, evergreens, fire intensity, fire management, fire suppression, fuel accumulation, fuel inventory, GIS, grasses, grasslands, habitat types, herbaceous vegetation, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, land use, leaves, mosaic, mountains, photography, Picea engelmannii, Pinus contorta, population density, precipitation, Pseudotsuga menziesii, remote sensing, rocky habitats, shrublands, smoke management, statistical analysis, suppression, understory vegetation, urban habitats, wetlands, woody plants, Wyoming, land cover, fire fuels, remote sensing, Landsat, aerial photography, NLCD (National Land Cover Data) SET, LEAF-ON and LEAF-OFF TM MOSAICS, barrens
In 1988, nearly half a million hectares of forest burned in the Greater Yellowstone Area. Six years later, the burned areas were still visible in the dual-polarization radar images acquired by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar C (SIR-C) at both C- (5.6 cm wavelength) and L-band (24…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Climate, Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Mapping, Monitoring and Inventory, Outreach, Planning, Social Science
Region(s): Rocky Mountain
Keywords: Abies lasiocarpa, biomass, catastrophic fires, char, community ecology, coniferous forests, cover, crowns, digital data collection, disturbance, duff, ecosystem dynamics, fire case histories, fire management, fire scar analysis, flammability, GIS, Idaho, ignition, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, lightning caused fires, moisture, mosaic, national parks, needles, old growth forests, overstory, Picea engelmannii, Pinus albicaulis, Pinus contorta, plant physiology, post fire recovery, Pseudotsuga menziesii, public information, regeneration, remote sensing, rocky habitats, statistical analysis, succession, understory vegetation, wildfires, wind, Wyoming, Yellowstone National Park, Landsat
One of the main problems is the strategic and operative prediction of wildland fire risks in Siberia. It requires the elaboration of a geoinformation expert system to predict emergency situations causing large wildland fires. The process for developing this system consists of…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Aquatic, Climate, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Intelligence, Mapping, Models, Monitoring and Inventory, Social Science, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): International
Keywords: backfires, catastrophic fires, coniferous forests, duff, Europe, fire case histories, fire damage (property), fire intensity, fire management, flame length, forest types, fuel accumulation, fuel inventory, fuel management, GIS, Idaho, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, lakes, landscape ecology, litter, peat, rate of spread, rivers, Russia, season of fire, Siberia, smoke behavior, storms, streams, surface fires, vegetation surveys, vortices, wilderness areas, wilderness fire management, wildfires, wildland fuels, wind, REGIONAL FUEL MAPS, steppe fires
We characterized recent historical and current vegetation composition and structure of a representative sample of subwatersheds on all ownerships within the interior Columbia River basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. For each selected subwatershed, we constructed…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire History, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Prescribed Fire, Social Science, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: Abies grandis, Arceuthobium americanum, arthropods, bark, catastrophic fires, coniferous forests, conifers, cover, cover type, cover type conversion, croplands, crown fires, diseases, disturbance, ecosystem dynamics, fire dependent species, fire exclusion, fire regimes, forest management, fuel loading, herbaceous vegetation, histories, Idaho, insects, landscape ecology, light, Montana, mountains, Oregon, overstory, Pinus ponderosa, plant diseases, Pseudotsuga menziesii, rivers, shrublands, smoke management, species diversity (plants), succession, trees, Washington, watersheds, wildfires, change detection, landscape assessment, spatial patterns, reference variation, ecosystem health, forest health, fire exclusion, disturbance regimes
Within a 2-week period in 1998, wildland fires swept across 500,000 acres of Florida*s lands. Over 1,700 fires ignited, leaving behind an enormous path of destruction on federal, state, and private lands. As the smoke continues to clear, many issues arise regarding the…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fuels, Mapping, Models, Safety, Weather, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: Aristida, bark, brush, catastrophic fires, Ctenium aromaticum, Dendroctonus, fire damage (property), fire damage protection, fire danger rating, fire injuries (plants), fire intensity, fire management, Florida, fragmentation, fuel appraisal, fuel management, GIS, grasses, habits and behavior, insects, introduced species, Ixia, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, landscape ecology, mortality, national forests, overstory, pine forests, Pinus, plant diseases, post fire recovery, private lands, remote sensing, state parks, suppression, threatened and endangered species (plants), vulnerable species or communities, wilderness areas, wilderness fire management, wildfires
From the Summary: The ultimate objective of the Division of Forestry*s new GIS-Based Fire Management systems is to provide quality service to the public and to minimize the harmful effects of smoke from open-burning, as well as minimize the loss of human life and property as a…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Models, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Social Science, Weather, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Southern
Keywords: burning permits, computer networks, computer programs, droughts, duff, fire danger rating, fire management, fire suppression, Florida, forest management, fuel loading, fuel moisture, GIS - geographic information system, GPS - global positioning system, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, multiple resource management, precipitation, rate of spread, remote sensing, rural communities, smoke behavior, smoke management, suppression, urban habitats, weather observations, wilderness fire management, wildfires, burn, wildland fire
Knowledge of temporal changes in the area burned by wildfires is required to understand their influence on global climate change. This paper reviews the primary methods of reconstructing and measuring area burned. The area burned by wildfires is typically reconstructed using…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Administration, Aquatic, Climate, Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire History, Fire Occurrence, Intelligence, Mapping, Models, Monitoring and Inventory, Planning
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, International, National
Keywords: age classes, biomass, Canada, charcoal, computer programs, dendrochronology, ecosystem dynamics, fire exclusion, fire frequency, fire injuries (plants), fire scar analysis, fire size, climate change, heat, human caused fires, lightning caused fires, mosaic, remote sensing, sedimentation, vegetation surveys, wildfires
Forest fuel loads are unnaturally high in the Sierra Nevada. The US Forest Service is currently preparing a prescribed fire program to reduce fuels in the region. Modeling, both short-term and long-term, direct and cumulative impacts to rural communities meets Federal mandates…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Fire Ecology, Climate, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Models, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation
Region(s): California, Great Basin
Keywords: air quality, axis, distribution, fire hazard reduction, fire intensity, fire management, forest types, fuel loading, national forests, Nevada, rural communities, Sierra Nevada, smoke effects, smoke management, topography, US Forest Service
The wildland fire emissions estimation system is a geographic information system to calculate smoke released from forest fires. It is a method for producing coherent, consistent, spatially and temporally resolved GIS based emission estimates for wildfire and prescribed burning.…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Fire Ecology, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fuels, Mapping, Models, Prescribed Fire
Region(s): California, Great Basin
Keywords: air quality, cover, ecosystem dynamics, fire management, GIS, health factors, histories, remote sensing, smoke behavior, smoke effects, smoke management, wilderness fire management, wildfires
Wildland fire has been an integral part of the conterminous United States' ecological landscape for millennia. Today wildland fire has to compete with other socially desirable goals for a share of a limited air resource. New ozone, particulate, and visibility protection air-…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fuels, Intelligence, Mapping, Monitoring and Inventory, Regulations and Legislation
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: agriculture, air quality, carbon dioxide, CO - carbon monoxide, cover type conversion, fire management, fire regimes, habitat conversion, health factors, land use, landscape ecology, natural resource legislation, ozone, remote sensing, threatened and endangered species (plants), wilderness fire management, wildfires, wildlife
From Web Document, Executive Summary... ' Premise This strategy is based on the premise that sustainable resources are predicated on healthy, resilient ecosystems. In fire-adapted ecosystems, some measure of fire use - at appropriate intensity, frequency, and time of year -…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: TTRS
Topic(s): Climate, Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Ecology, Fire History, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Planning, Prescribed Fire, Restoration and Rehabilitation, Safety, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, International, National
Keywords: air quality, Arizona, arthropods, catastrophic fires, coastal forests, Colorado, coniferous forests, cover, crown fires, diseases, disturbance, droughts, fire damage (property), fire danger rating, fire dependent species, fire frequency, fire hazard reduction, fire intensity, fire regimes, fire size, fire suppression, fishes, flammability, floods, Florida, forest management, forest types, fuel accumulation, fuel loading, fuel management, grasslands, health factors, Idaho, insects, landscape ecology, light burning, logging, Montana, multiple resource management, national forests, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, pine forests, Pinus ponderosa, pollution, population density, post fire recovery, precipitation, rangelands, recreation, smoke effects, smoke management, soils, species diversity, stand characteristics, streamflow, Texas, threatened and endangered species, topography, US Forest Service, understory vegetation, Utah, Washington, water quality, watersheds, wilderness areas, wilderness fire management, wildfires, wildland fuels, wildlife, wildlife habitat management, wind, Wyoming
A major goal in satellite remote sensing of fire is to derive globally accurate measurements of the spatial and temporal distribution of burning. To date, the main sensor employed in fire and fire-scar detection has been the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Mapping
Region(s): Alaska, California, Eastern, Great Basin, Hawaii, Northern Rockies, Northwest, Rocky Mountain, Southern, Southwest, National
Keywords: fire scars, AVHRR - Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, fire detection, trace gas emissions, active fires, satellite remote sensing
A 3-D numerical investigation is carried out to assess the impact of a forest fire in northeastern China on the photochemical oxidant cycle of east Asia. Two simulations, without and with the emissions from the fire, are carried out during springtime in May 1987. The fire,…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire History, Intelligence, Mapping, Models, Monitoring and Inventory
Region(s): International
Keywords: aerosol index, Asia, black carbon, boreal forests, China, emission estimates, numerical modeling, tropospheric ozone, aerosols, air quality, biomass, C - carbon, CO2 - carbon dioxide, fire case histories, fire management, human caused fires, Japan, ozone, remote sensing, wildfires
Fire suppression has resulted in severe management challenges, especially in the wildland-urban interface zone. Fire managers seek to reduce fuels and risks in the interface zone, while striving to return the natural role of fire to wildland ecosystems. Managers must balance the…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Economics, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Fire Effects, Fire History, Fire Occurrence, Fire Prevention, Fuels, Hazard and Risk, Mapping, Models, Prescribed Fire, Regulations and Legislation, Social Science, Weather, Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
Region(s): Northern Rockies
Keywords: fire benefits, fire severity, GIS - geographic information system, landscape scale, fuel management, wildland fire use, fire risk, air quality, computer program, drought, ecosystem dynamics, fire damage (property), fire dependent species, fire hazard reduction, fire intensity, fire management, fire suppression, fuel accumulation, health factors, Idaho, ignition, JFSP - Joint Fire Science Program, land use, landscape ecology, Montana, natural resource legislation, Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, site treatments, suppression, surface fuels, topography, wilderness fire management, wildland fuels, wildfires
A comprehensive investigation of Canadian boreal forest fires was conducted using NOAA-AVHRR imagery. Alogorithms were developed to (1) detect active forest fires, (2) map burned areas on daily and annual basis, and (3) estimate fire emissions based on burned area and Canadian…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES
Topic(s): Emissions and Smoke, Fire Effects, Mapping
Region(s): Alaska, International
Keywords: boreal forest, Canada, fire, burned area
Visible and infrared (IR) observations of flame structure were made of the Frostfire controlled burn carried out 8-10 July 1999 at the Caribou-Poker Creek Research Watershed near Fairbanks, Alaska. The observations were taken from Caribou Peak, facing the burn area from the…
Person:
Year: 2000
Type: Document
Source: FRAMES, TTRS
Topic(s): Communications, Emissions and Smoke, Fire Behavior, Fire Ecology, Intelligence, Mapping, Models, Monitoring and Inventory, Prescribed Fire
Region(s): Alaska
Keywords: Frostfire, infrared imagery, air quality, boreal forest, ecology, energy, experimental fire, fire intensity, fire management, flame length, photography, rate of spread, remote sensing, soot, temperature, watershed management, watersheds