The fire history of Piñon-Juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus osteosperma) woodlands in much of the southwestern United States is poorly understood, and as a result, fire management decisions are being made without a rigorous ecological underpinning. We investigated the historic fire regimes in Piñon-Juniper woodlands on the Mesa Verde cuesta utilizing stand and age structures. All Piñon trees in eight stands were aged and stand age was extrapolated to the surrounding landscapes using digital imagery, creating a time-since-fire map of the 1995 landscape. Six sampled stands were over 400 years, while two were between 200 and 300 years. Stand-replacing fire with a rotation of 400 years or longer characterized this Piñon-Juniper landscape before 1995; low-severity surface fires apparently have never been an important component of the fire regime in Mesa Verde. Superposed epoch analysis revealed that large fires occur following significantly low precipitation in May or in the winter (October-March) preceding a summer fire season. Since the mid-1990's, a severe drought has characterized climate in this region, but the recent drought is similar to previous drought periods since 1950. A combination of canopy fuel build-up during two wet decades before 1995 and the current drought conditions has resulted in unprecedented fire activity (six large wildfires between 1996 and 2003) when compared with the reference period 1700-1900. We may be witnessing a unique period in the ecological history of the southwest, a period when vegetation patterns are being altered over extensive areas within a very short time. If the current drought continues, we ultimately may lose much of the old-growth Piñon-Juniper woodland in the southwest. We emphasize however, that these changes are not due to fire suppression or other direct human intervention but rather result from natural ecological responses to climatic variability. Therefore, our data provide no ecological justification for aggressive management activities such as mechanical fuel reduction or prescribed burning, except in the immediate vicinity of vulnerable cultural resources.