The longleaf pine-grassland (Pinus palustris-Poaceae) ecosystem occupied over 30 million ha in the southeastern United States at the time of European discovery. Frequent low- to moderate-intensity surface fires ignited by both lightning and native Americans sustained open diverse stands in a fire climax and prevented succession to mixed hardwood forests. disruption of prehistorical and historical fire regimes, coupled with land conversion, urbanization, and other factors, is responsible for the rapid decline of the ecosystem. Today only about 1.2 million ha remain, much in isolated fragments. Primarily because of habitat loss, many animal and plant species associated with longleaf forests are now rare or in decline. Restoration ecologists and managers face a daunting challenge -- recreating an ecosystem, in the face of chronic cumulative stress from human activities, that varied widely over temporal and spatial scales. Key restoration factors include: (1) development of a general understanding of the historical condition of the longleaf ecosystem, especially unusual or unique communities and habitats embedded in the general fabric of the larger ecosystem, (2) initiation and expansion of a fire regime, where feasible, similar to that which historically shaped the ecosystem, (3) maintenance/enhancement of herbaceous diversity, (4) continued research on habitat requirements and distribution of rare species, and (5) encouragement of a multi-owner partnership approach to promote conservation across the landscape. Landowners and the public must be educated about the values of the longleaf pine-grassland ecosystem and develop a conservation ethic that considers aesthetics, wildlife, and biodiversity, in addition to economics, if the ecosystem is to be restored. Most forestry practices used to manage and restore longleaf forests are of low short-term risk to rare species in this ecosystem. The benefits of active management usually far outweigh the long-term risks associated with no management. © 2005 Elsevier B.V.